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The phenomenon of Prostitutes El Arahal is universal and very old; It originates in regions where misery and injustice have particularly affected some people, impoverishing them and throwing them into the arms of smugglingrobbery or crimewhich generated a more or less collective form of organized looting that also included crimes such as assaultkidnapping and vendetta.

It is about the so-called social banditrydefined by Eric Hobsbawn :. The Greeks met bandits Prostitutes El Arahal Skiron and Procrustean.

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A letter addressed to Cicero Epist. In the 1st century BC. In the Italian peninsula, an epigram, the oldest of the couplets attributed to Virgilioreports on a highwayman, Ballista, who was stoned to death [ 1 ] and, according to Dio Cassiusa certain Bulla Felix took over the route between Rome and Brindisi in the time of the emperor Septimius Severusaround the year AD.

Of this character there are very audacious beatings and robberies and numerous assaults Prostitutes El Arahal travelers, in a way that recalls Prostitutes El Arahal history of more modern bandits.

During the barbarian invasions and the crisis of imperial power, the phenomenon worsened in the West and there were wars in the 5th century against the so-called Bagaudas in France and Spain.

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If we ignore the fertile history of banditry in the Middle Agesin which we can mention among the German rombritters Wolf de Warrstein and the golfers of La Prostitutes El Arahalwho over time even aroused in this territory a specific police Prostitutes El Arahal Old Holy Brotherhoodthere were famous bandits in the mountains of Scotland and the roads of Englandthe so-called highwaymenas Dick Turpin or John Nevisonamong other outlaw or forajidos from Latin exitus fora"he expelled out" ; in France there were also them, like the brigants or hors-la-loi.

Especially famous was Louis Dominique BourguignonProstitutes El Arahal, during the 18th century, but also Mandrin or Claude DuvalProstitutes El Arahal also in southern Italy Nino MartinoMarco BerardiMarco SciarraAngelo DucaFra Diavolo and Prostitutes El Arahal Crocco ; in Serbia invaded by the Ottoman Turks they were called hajduks and starred in epic songs and legends; in any case, always in times of war, famine, epidemic, revolution or crisis.

Sahinamong many others. In Japanthe social position of the bandit was unchecked: sometimes they were ninja and sometimes ronin ; the most famous was undoubtedly the ronin Ishikawa Goemona regular character in the kabuki theater. The enlightenedhowever, rejected these manifestations of popular literature for offering models to the people of delinquency and bad life that people of little education and little moral could follow.

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Apart from the aforementioned precedents from Roman times, in Spain Muslim writers such as Ibn Abdun gave advice to suppress the banditry that was developing in the surroundings of Seville. The Seven Games contain laws to protect the merchants who are frequent victims of these criminals, called at that time banditsfor having been trumpeted on a search or capture side, outlawsfor having been expelled or fled from Prostitutes El Arahal city, relegatedrestricted or embedded. Highwayman comes from saltus"forest" in Latin, because it was the preferred place for their misdeeds, although it was the most common for their actions Prostitutes El Arahal take place in the mountains, where they colluded with some innkeepers who glanced at the victims of greater flow and less escort and warned so that they Prostitutes El Arahal waiting for the procession or diligence in some narrow passage between rocks.

The phenomenon was so serious in La Mancha that aroused a social reaction, at last, when a band called the Golfines terrorized the southern plateau in the late Middle Ages, which gave rise to the birth of the first modern civil guardthe so-called Santa Hermandad vieja de Toledo y Ciudad Realwhich had its Prostitutes El Arahal of executions by assault in the town of Peralvillo.

In Spain and during the sixteenth century there were two major outbreaks of banditry, the Andalusian and the Catalan-Aragonese; The same Ferdinand organized a campaign against the brigands of Aragon in It was customary to throw Prostitutes El Arahal victims into very deep ravines so that no trace of the crimes remained. In Catalonia and in the 16th century Antonio RocaTesta de Ferro and Perot Rocaguinardaremembered by Cervantesand, already in the 17th century, Joan Sala, nicknamed Serrallonga ; many of these Catalan bandits were actually instruments of the popular clan of the Nyerros or Nyarros in their private fight against the aristocratic clan of the Cadells.

Also in La Mancha, but in the 18th century, the band of the three Juanillones brothers he colluded to distribute benefits with a notary public in Toledo, who later betrayed them and was murdered by the girlfriend of one of them.

Already Prostitutes El Arahal Extremadura and in the seventeenth century, a fierce bandit that acted alone and murdered its victims, La Serrana de Prostitutes El Arahal Verabecame famous, even mythicalwhich inspired romances and theatrical pieces; There was even a dramatic genre specialized in this type of criminals, the Bandit Comedy. Rustlers or cattle thieves, known as cowboysworked mainly around Ronda.

And there were also bandits, generally known as serranasamong which the most famous, for its literary sequels, was undoubtedly La Serrana de la Vera de Plasencia.

A classic place for highway robbers was Sierra Morenaas early as the 1st century BC. Banditry appears mainly in Spain during the 18th and 19th centuriesespecially in regions such as AndalusiaCastilla la Nueva or Catalonia. In the 19th century, the apogee of this type of crime took place, arising from the guerrilla groups or brigantes in the War of Independence that, at the end, found themselves unable to assimilate to the regular army. The reign of Fernando VII was especially prone to this, when the regular army was replaced by the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louispaid for by the monarch, who did not trust his own army and replaced it with the royalist Volunteer militia.

Many games during the Carlist Wars gave rise to a similar phenomenon. The one who is considered the last bandit Pasos Largos died on March 18 Of the Prostitutes El Arahal, twenty-four had lived in Olvera or Archidona before the demise of the sultanate, and were thus able to provide detailed accounts of the ecclesiastical, political and military organisation of these frontier villages, including the origins and statuses of their inhabitants and defenders.

Olvera and its surrounding territory Prostitutes El Arahal subjugated by Alfonso XI between andbut it proved difficult to find Christian colonists to people the conquered land, and this allowed the Nasrids to regain most of the lost territory within a few years. The only settlement in the area that remained under Christian control was Olvera itself.

From the mids until the conquest of Pruna, Zahara and Antequera in the early Prostitutes El Arahal century, Olvera was virtually surrounded by Muslim settlements Figure 1. However, none of them refer to the testimony used in this article.

Populating the frontier: franchises and settlers Throughout the Prostitutes El Arahal half of the fifteenth century, Olvera and Archidona had small but stable populations, which Prostitutes El Arahal growing in the early s, at the end of the War of Granada.

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This trend persisted until the mid-sixteenth century, and within a few decades the populations of both settlements had grown fivefold. Large suburban residential quarters appeared outside the city walls and became the main population nuclei, replacing the former residential areas Prostitutes El Arahal the fortified precinct Table 1. InAlfonso XI issued a charter to Olvera, in which the right of the residents to not pay royal taxes was recognised.

Of the fifty-three Old Christians questioned intwenty-four had lived in Olvera eleven or Archidona thirteen beforebut by that date only four remained in the former and none in the latter. Most of the witnesses came from elsewhere in Andalusia, and between and many relocated. Most moved into the recently conquered sultanate of Granada as beneficiaries of the land distributions that followed the conquest, but others moved to various former frontier posts.

ByProstitutes El Arahal nine of the old Christian witnesses summoned by Prostitutes El Arahal court lived in their birthplaces, and two of these people had lived elsewhere before returning. Despite this demographic fluidity, the administration of the local councils was fully formed before In Prostitutes El Arahal early s, the Castilian Crown gauged that only 33 percent of the residents of Olvera and 19 percent of those of Archidona were married,16 and it deemed this sufficient, although these figures were proportionately very low for the period in question.

Prostitutes El Arahal record attests to married men who settled on the frontier without their families. Olvera five or Archidona one between and The record also attests to colonists settling in Prostitutes El Arahal with their families before Some witnesses may simply Prostitutes El Arahal omitted to mention that their wives and children had lived with them in these villages. Furthermore, the cross-section of the population provided by the sample of witnesses is misrepresentative, because many of those who would have been mature men in the s and s were dead by In general terms, the men who testified had been very young beforesince most of them were in their early twenties at the time.

As such, they had not had time to marry. At any rate, almost all the witnesses ended up forming a family and, bytwenty-two of the twenty-four witnesses who had lived in either of the two villages before were Prostitutes El Arahal or widowers.

Among the least understood aspects of life in these communities is the management of agricultural land prior to the conquest of Granada.

The scant population and the Muslim raids limited the extent and forms of cultivation available to the residents of Prostitutes El Arahal and Archidona. The raiders succeeded in stealing 1, sheep after killing the shepherds. However, there were long periods, sometimes lasting years Prostitutes El Arahal end, during which cross-border violence was a constant reality and the land had to be abandoned.

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For Prostitutes El Arahal reason, the concession of franchises and the settlement of colonists was simply the first step in a long process, and the Crown and nobility had to devise mechanisms to prevent desertion owing to war and bad harvests. The Crown transferred the management of some of its sources of income 32 Lawsuit, v and v. These payments were known as pagas and lievas.

Diego de. Rojas Gabriel published a transcription of the grant to Olvera in Olvera, — The system reproduced the ancestral method for distributing booty between the members of Christian war parties, which had been adapted for the division of conquered territories among the colonists.

During Prostitutes El Arahal second half of the fifteenth century, there were around heads of household in Archidona—roughly 54 horsemen and 86 footmen, and 61 in Olvera—35 and 31, respectively. Henry IV calculated a monthly wage of 90 Prostitutes El Arahal for the horsemen of Archidona, 30 for crossbowmen and 24 for spearmen, but according to the witnesses, each cavalryman was paid around maravedis every month, while footmen were paid The information available for Olvera, although less abundant, seems to confirm this.

The wages mentioned in the grant are 60 maravedis for cavalrymen, 44 for crossbowmen and 14 for spearmen, although the reality was closer to maravedis for horsemen and 83 for footmen. Married men received an extra measure of wheat, and cavalrymen were given Prostitutes El Arahal barley to feed their horses. Monetary rewards were given to those who took part in non-compulsory military duties escorting supply vans and doing sentry duty during peace timespractised certain trades builders, carpenters, engineers or served in the village government.

In Olvera, the stipulated wage of a married cavalryman who undertook sentry duties amounted to maravedis and 84 fanegas of Prostitutes El Arahal, nothing compared to the 2, maravedis and 88 fanegas that the count paid them Table 2. While a footman in Olvera and Archidona was paid between 1, and 3, maravedis per year, the Prostitutes El Arahal salary of a master builder in Seville was maravedis, and that of a cuirass-maker in Murcia was barely The Crown appears to have based the wages in Olvera and Archidona on the redistributive system followed in royal and seigniorial military campaigns.

Each enlisted man received a Prostitutes El Arahal, while service lasted, in line with his social and military status, which compensated him for the disruption that the expeditions caused to his family finances. If the evidence provided by the witnesses is accurate, his investment in the populations of Olvera and Archidona was greater than the Crown Prostitutes El Arahal forecasted.

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The wages paid to these settlers were not simply bonuses to their regular salaries, as was the case in military expeditions; on the frontier, duty was permanent and alternative means of income Prostitutes El Arahal unreliable.

Governors had to guarantee their men not only their daily sustenance, but also a greater profit than they would reap had they stayed in the Prostitutes El Arahal regions. Inthe city council of Jaen filed a complaint because the fortress of Cambil was manned by only thirty residents, when the full complement was eighty.

The governor replied that he was forced to pay wages that were over twice as Prostitutes El Arahal as had been budgeted to ensure that the residents stayed. Professional soldiers? For the Crown, the duty of defending frontier settlements fell by default to their inhabitants, who were to be paid a wage according to their ability to fulfil this duty.

The records, in any case, do not make any explicit distinctions among the inhabitants of the villages according to the intensity of the military duties they carried out. Also, four of these men were part of the mounted force that escorted supply vans to Olvera and Archidona. In contrast, Prostitutes El Arahal one-third of the men Prostitutes El Arahal did not receive a salary from the count claimed to have taken part in this sort of operation. In contrast, all the witnesses who did not receive a salary from the count lived in Olvera, and half of them still lived there at the time of the court case.

InArchidona had been under Castilian domination for barely thirty years, and it is likely that its population was still heavily dependent on men who settled there for more or less long periods of time in exchange for a salary.

Olvera, for its part, had been under Castilian sovereignty Prostitutes El Arahal over a century and a half, and had had time to consolidate a more stable, diverse and autonomous population, including residents who played no part in the defence of the village. Regardless Prostitutes El Arahal whether they had undertaken any military duty, none of the witnesses offered any details concerning their economic activity during their time at the frontier.

However, byProstitutes El Arahal of them worked, generally as farmers.

The profiles of the witnesses summoned to the proceedings in do not match the classic view of a Late Medieval Prostitutes El Arahal society divided sharply between warriors at the frontier and farmers, merchants and artisans in the rear-guard. Pigeonholing the colonists who inhabited frontier outposts into categories based on their involvement in military actions is a futile Prostitutes El Arahal.

There were never two kinds of settlers: men-at-arms and farmers belonged to the same families, and a single individual could easily move between groups. He was present at the siege of Archidona inprobably in the company of a relative. In the late-fifteenth or the early sixteenth century, he was in Casarabonela, a village near Malaga conquered inwhere he lived for some time.

After living on the wages and booty for a few years, many reverted to their original livelihoods as farmers. This does not mean that during their employment Prostitutes El Arahal defence of the villages these men were not fully committed to their military duties. These paysans-soldats, whose participation in military operations was determined by the agricultural calendar, constituted the foundations of the medieval council militias and the expansion of the Christian Spanish 67 Lawsuit, r and r, respectively.

As the Crown curtailed the possibility of social promotion and tax privileges, the drive to Prostitutes El Arahal expeditions declined, and the monarchy was forced to implement a Prostitutes El Arahal model Prostitutes El Arahal combined the obligation to possess arms and other equipment with a wage for armed service. Despite the transition from a system of incentives based on booty and fiscal and political privileges to another based on regular wages, the social origins of members of council militias do not Prostitutes El Arahal to have changed significantly.

These were the men who made up the royal hosts that conquered al-Andalus, who retained by force of arms the territory taken by the Christians and then began cultivating the new land. The Manichean vision of villages in the Castile— 76 According to J.

Granada frontier manned by soldiers and criminals, outside the margins of a Prostitutes El Arahal made up of a peaceful majority of peasants, is contradicted by the testimonies presented at the court case, which describe a community of men who could easily transition from farmer to warrior to bandit—and vice versa.

Historia de las Indias, III. Medina; J. Barreda; I. Ascenso de un linaje Prostitutes El Arahal en la segunda mitad del siglo XVI. Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Alijo Hidalgo, Francisco.

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For other uses of this term, see Bandit disambiguation. Mary Magdalene early s by Ambrosius Benson. Squares: Castilian towns.