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Ghosts of Place and Spirits of War: Spectral Belief in Early Modern England and Protestant Germany

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More in Prostitutes Wurzen to link The federal charge of importing and click to see more an alien for purposes of prostitution carries a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison, while conspiracy to commit marriage fraud is punishable by Prostitutes to five years in prison, officials said. Why Germany Prostitutes Wurzen England? Protestant Germany and England are excellent subjects for a joint study on ghosts and spirit belief in this period.

Both saw themselves as standard bearers of the Reformation and defined themselves sharply Prostitutes Wurzen their polemic against what they considered as popish and ultimately foreign. Both were originally pagan, northern European, Germanic cultures Prostitutes Wurzen either a Celtic or Slav fringe and underlay with which they were at odds culturally, and often in matters of religion too. Prostitutes Wurzen countries had thriving print industries.

Prostitutes Wurzen were defined afterwards by the memory of the turbulence and devastation of the period, one Prostitutes Wurzen religion was often blamed for. Even today, both nations see themselves as uniquely haunted and ghost-ridden. These Prostitutes Wurzen of Weberian modernity stand uncomfortably alongside a fascination with ghosts and the occult that characterised the Gothic movement which emerged in Prostitutes Wurzen late eighteenth century in both countries.

It will introduce an early modern German ghostlore which has been largely invisible to the English reader. It is not the intention of this study to trace a comparative development of the supernatural in lockstep in either country, based on a dialectic between German and English theologians and intellectuals and their works. Such studies have been done before and are invariably divided into a tripartite staging reflecting Prostitutes Wurzen intellectual ambivalence and anxieties towards the ghost.

This gravitated from their Prostitutes Wurzen vehement rejection by reformers in the sixteenth century, to their subsequent reincorporation into Protestant learned Prostitutes Wurzen and cheap print texts as agents of punishment, justice and Providence in the mid to later seventeenth century and as proof of a world of spirits. This staging then concluded with their final exit from the learned debate as ghost-seeing lost its intellectual authority and was relegated entirely to the realms of the imagination, whether that be of the artist or the pathologist.

It follows a very Protestant and liberal theory of history as a journey from darkness into light, a battle where knowledge and wisdom finally trump ignorance and superstition. A strictly chronological study can trace elite trends in understandings of spirits but it will be of less use in attempting to discern what popular belief and attitudes actually were. I want to turn away from the idea that theologians alone had any monopoly of this subject and instead look at the wider settings in which ghosts operated, namely those of place, which are critical to spectral legends and belief, and war, which in turn Prostitutes Wurzen many spectres.

A thematic study will prove more useful here. The major medieval cultural studies of ghosts by J. Schmitt, Claude Lecouteux and Nancy Caciola rely Prostitutes Wurzen sources from across western and northern Europe and are not restricted to a focus on ghosts purely in the Prostitutes Wurzen of a modern-day nation-state.

Kathryn Edwards has called for a wider transnational and trans-confessional look at ghosts in early modern Europe. It will focus overwhelmingly on the Protestant experience though it is necessary to Prostitutes Wurzen Catholic tropes Prostitutes Wurzen understandings of the supernatural at times. This is to understand the context from which Protestantism developed, and against which it defined itself.

It is also intended, when Prostitutes Wurzen, to show continuity between the medieval and early modern periods and between Catholic and Protestant conceptions of apparitions. We must also remember that large swathes of popular belief, not least on ghosts, was at various times condemned as a relic of Romanism and that the lower classes were depicted as preferring to wallow in such superstition rather Prostitutes Wurzen the true light of the Word or Reason.

A broader sweep of sources can make themes stand out more clearly. This is especially true when looking at how early moderns understood haunted places and Prostitutes Wurzen in war. We can see similarities between ghostly funeral processions Prostitutes Wurzen Germany and spectral lights in Wales. Both societies share remarkably similar beliefs at the folkloric level concerning death portents.

Likewise, we will meet many spectral tropes present in the German record Prostitutes Wurzen absent in the English. At one level this may indicate that it indeed was absent from the English Prostitutes Wurzen tradition. Physical grave-based revenants are the most prominent example of this Prostitutes Wurzen points of difference between the two countries.

They are arguably entirely absent from the early modern English understanding of ghosts but present in the German tradition. This is most likely due to the late Christianisation of much of northern and eastern Germany and the presence of a Slavic underlay and periphery in this region. However, with other ghostly tropes, this is less clear cut.

There is the possibility, one I strongly suggest in this thesis, that Prostitutes Wurzen spirit tropes Prostitutes Wurzen simply not recorded in the English record of the time.

The most obvious examples were those that haunted graveyards. They were not seen as worth recording and Prostitutes Wurzen dismissed as the tales of women Prostitutes Wurzen the old.

They also potentially reflected earlier Catholic paradigms of spirits, one Protestant writers felt uncomfortable with. The obvious question is whether this signals in any way a darker German Prostitutes Wurzen, one more preoccupied with the supernatural than say what the English mindset was Prostitutes Wurzen to be. It is a difficult question. We should be aware of the differences between England and Germany.

For a start, England in Prostitutes Wurzen a population of approximately 4 million, Ireland around 1. Furthermore, whereas England was governed by a single crown, one which claimed and exercised sovereignty to various degrees in this period over Ireland and Scotland, Germany was administered by over 1, territorial rulers.

One price for greater political stability was the undue influence London and the south-east of England exercised throughout the rest of the realm. Until the lapse of the Licensing Act inalmost all print had to go through London. One positive consequence of German disunity and particularism was that printing presses operated across various cities in the Prostitutes Wurzen, providing an explanation for the greater number of local ghost stories and reports in comparison to England. Town chronicles were one source of tales where the German record was particularly rich.

The Prostitutes Wurzen one encounters therein were different to the spirits one met in anti-atheist tracts or English cheap print.

Instead of proving the fallacy Prostitutes Wurzen Catholics or atheists or the penetrative gaze of the all-seeing eye of Providence, they were more interested in recording a tale which was part of the history of a location. Though sometimes the author felt a need to dismiss such stories as relics of papist superstition, they were still recorded as they were part of the history of that place.

Another major factor to be considered was that Prostitutes Wurzen religion. Catholicism was, despite the scares, a much Prostitutes Wurzen foreign and distant menace to English Prostitutes Wurzen than it was to German Protestants. To the north lay a Calvinist Scotland but the nearest Catholic lands lay across the 7 G. The British Civil Wars Prostitutes Wurzen largely fought Prostitutes Wurzen Protestants.

This was again in sharp contrast to the situation in Germany where Lutherans, Calvinists and Catholics shared borders with Prostitutes Wurzen other and where the titular head of the Empire was a Catholic.

Conflicts, most famously the Schmalkaldic War and the Thirty Years Warwere nominally struggles between Protestants and Catholics. It is notable that there was no home-grown English treatise on ghosts before the mid-seventeenth century.

Though riven at times by civil strife as in the War of the Roses, Prostitutes Wurzen Tudor rebellions, the Civil War, the disputes of the s leading up to Prostitutes Wurzen Glorious Revolution and then later Jacobite risings, England Prostitutes Wurzen more immune to the threat of political chaos and warfare than its continental neighbours.

Most importantly, the Channel and Irish Sea patrolled by a strong navy separated it from its closest neighbours and staved off the immediate threat of invasion. This contrasted with a confessionally and politically divided Holy Roman Empire and Germany at conflict with itself. Furthermore, Germany was surrounded by strong neighbours such as Denmark, Sweden, France, Poland, Turkey, the Netherlands and Spain among others, all of whom had an interest and means to keep it divided.

This study primarily uses German and English language sources to reconstruct ghost belief for the early modern period in Protestant Germany and England. As a result, the record for England is heavily skewed towards sources printed in London. For Germany, most Prostitutes Wurzen were Prostitutes Wurzen in Protestant cities in the Prostitutes Wurzen and centre, the traditional Prostitutes Wurzen of the Reformation.

My Prostitutes Wurzen focus is on the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though Prostitutes Wurzen primary sources run well into the eighteenth century. As is the case with many early modern studies, it is easier to say when this one starts with the traditional commencement of the Reformation in than when it ends.

It is also difficult to set precise time limits on studies into popular belief, as Owen Davies has shown for witchcraft beliefs, which despite falling off 10 P. In these cases, we will rely on English Prostitutes Wurzen German language sources and thus understand it as their encounter with something potentially foreign. The parishioners were not passive subjects, nor were the clergy unwilling to engage with folkloric models.

Scribner Prostitutes Wurzen T. S Dixon ed. It will argue against the idea that any sectarian camp Prostitutes Wurzen a final and decisive victory over the other in the battle for the hearts and minds of people regarding spirits and ghosts. Instead, a more varied and accommodating folk supernatural embodying elements from various traditions existed, a melange that was usually at odds with Prostitutes Wurzen formal Christianities of Prostitutes Wurzen societies.

Many of the themes and actors are the same. We have a pagani countryside, entrenched in error and ignorance, the target for the message of Prostitutes Wurzen new caste of Prostitutes Wurzen, certain of their righteousness and eager to root out the Prostitutes Wurzen gods from their groves.

The crucial question is the extent to which the persistence of motifs and tropes of the supernatural meant a persistence of the heathen or Catholic mindset, or Prostitutes Wurzen, as forms, they were much more malleable and adaptable to the contemporary needs of the people using them.

Nancy Caciola, in her own work into medieval spirits, dismissed the idea that ghosts necessarily demonstrated the persistence of a pagan undercurrent of belief in medieval Europe. She acknowledged the debt of older motifs and spirit tropes in the making of a Christian supernatural but warned against imagining that these represented an underground pagan religion which persisted into the medieval period.

Gordon and P. Newton ed. Rituals and beliefs which the early Reformation had held deep suspicions towards and had abolished were reintroduced in Lutheranism.

These included the churching of women, the consecration of sacred spaces in churches and graveyards and the blessing of pulpits, fonts, organs and bells. Therefore, many traditional supernatural tropes continued across from the medieval period. Likewise, in this thesis ghosts will be shown to affirm the continued importance of correct ritual, most notably involving the proper disposal of the dead.

This thesis follows in the footsteps of those, like Bob Scribner and Alexandra Walsham, who argued against a Protestant disenchantment of the world.

Dunlap Oxford: Oxford University Press, This Prostitutes Wurzen especially important when we consider ghost belief. In this thesis we will encounter many ghostly tropes that existed in the medieval era and carried over into the early modern period, and indeed beyond. This study emphasises how these tropes continued and were on occasion tweaked to make them more acceptable in Protestant print.

There were clear efforts 48 Walsham, Providence, Indeed, such tales played upon the medieval Purgatorial motif of a ghost being seen to transform from foul to fair as it gained the trust of the witness and was purified by the masses and prayers that person sought to free it from its punishments.

The Protestant model reversed this, with fair turning to foul as its true nature was revealed. However, these were just part of the picture, plays upon one trope Prostitutes Wurzen many others which likewise had their roots in models of haunting that predated the Reformation. Likewise, a ghost story need not be set in the time of telling but could recount an encounter with a spirit decades or centuries before.

These were stories with explicit connection to Prostitutes Wurzen past by the nature of their dead subjects. There was an ambivalence in the literary record Prostitutes Wurzen such Prostitutes Wurzen. At one level, they could be dismissed more easily as papist relics, written down by nefarious monks. Prostitutes Wurzen the other hand, the pedigree and authority of a story could be enhanced by its age and having been recorded by a famous chronicler or writer so long as its themes could be worked into the agenda of the early modern writer quoting it.

Though Catholic in sympathy, the English scientist John Beaumont c. Likewise the Power of Witches, and the Prostitutes Wurzen of other Magical Operations, clearly asserted. With Prostitutes Wurzen refutation of Dr.

Bekker's World Bewitch'd; and other authors that have opposed the Belief of them. London, Focusing largely on cheap print as a medium for propagating ghost Prostitutes Wurzen and the market that was consuming them, she stressed the rise of a ghost in a developing capitalist nation that was increasingly confident in its Protestantism.

Instead of only demonising Catholicism, they focused on morality. It differs from what Rieger claims is observed in Britain at the same time, where the ghost was de-confessionalised. Similarly, it does not dispute that ghosts were used to condemn moral excesses associated with the growth of capitalism. However, it does stress that the ghosts in the hands of the divines Prostitutes Wurzen printers were not indicative of the entire picture.

This picture was much more varied and colourful and reflective of both modern and traditional anxieties. It was to be expected that texts penned by Lutheran and English Protestant divines would reflect their specific concerns rather than the spectrum of Prostitutes Wurzen and situations that ghosts could encompass.

We encounter a similar process when looking at textual sources for orthodox Catholic ghost belief, both in the later medieval and in the early modern period where the Purgatorial spectre dominated at the expense of all other tropes. The Catholic Church encouraged one model, one which the reformers also pushed when lampooning that faith.

Both Catholic Prostitutes Wurzen Protestant divines shared the Prostitutes Wurzen advantage of 63 M. Rieger, Prostitutes Wurzen Teufel im Pfarrhaus. However, it was clear from my research that these Prostitutes Wurzen pushed by either Catholic or Protestant clergymen and polemicists did not paint the entire picture.

Clearly, Prostitutes Wurzen print genres promoted particular tropes and were largely silent detailing others. Examples of Prostitutes Wurzen which we will examine in this thesis are graveyard ghosts which received little attention in the English record but much more in the German archive.

It comes in at pages with just over chapters. Each chapter dealt with a certain form of supernatural activity or spectral trope with numerous stories in each section detailing and investigating it. The name itself reflected a Protestant view of the Devil as the hellish Proteus, a pagan god who constantly changes his form. The title charged him as a skilful and adept actor, one that could play a multitude of roles to betray mankind.

The author clearly depicted a top-down supernatural, one overseen by the Devil who in turn was Prostitutes Wurzen by God. Though much Prostitutes Wurzen it was working from within the learned tradition, incorporating classical and medieval tales Prostitutes Wurzen a corpus of work designed to reveal the Devil in all his spectral forms and activities, it did clearly betray the existence of a multifaceted supernatural, one in which Francisci often found hard to definitively and convincingly isolate the hand of the devil at work in every haunting.

Leaving aside the Protestant and anti-atheist polemic of the work, Prostitutes Wurzen can easily see this as reflecting a far more complex view of the supernatural than reliance on cheap print genres alone might allow. If one looks from the bottom Prostitutes Wurzen, one potentially can see the folkloric view of haunting.

In the English record, we are occasionally reminded of a world of hauntings far beyond what Prostitutes Wurzen encounters in either the ghost books of the late seventeenth century or cheap print pamphlets and ballads.

Hohenloh-Langenburgischen Raht Nuremberg, What is of interest is again the large number of tropes and spectres mentioned as well as the different genres and mediums that ghosts existed in. It is worth quoting in full: The cheat is begun with Nurses with stories of bugbears, etc from whence we are gradually led to listen to the traditionary Accounts of local Ghosts, which like the Genii of the Ancients, have been reported to haunt certain Family Seats, and Cities famous for their Antiquity and Decays.

Hauntings associated with Prostitutes Wurzen locations Prostitutes Wurzen also stressed. We can see that certain groups exploited particular tropes for Prostitutes Wurzen own purposes, whether they be nurses, pamphleteers or writers of pious tracts on death as well as unscrupulous tenants. Just because a story was old certainly did not mean that it was no longer told. Likewise, we often read stories the author claims happened in his Prostitutes Wurzen or that he heard when young from his elders as well as peers.

Death culture, of which ghost stories are certainly a part, is notoriously conservative. We should not forget Prostitutes Wurzen ghost stories have a remarkable longevity in that the tellers most frequently ridiculed after Catholic priests naturally were the old who recounted these tales to children on their knees.

This would explain with some justification the two frequent assumptions by writers that ghosts were both papist and linked to the old. Of course, Catholicism was synonymous both as cause and effect of ignorance in the wider population according to the contemporary learned Protestant mindset. However, this should be qualified by noting that oral tales would not necessarily remain frozen entirely Prostitutes Wurzen the tropes and beliefs of the past but could adapt and be rebranded with the incorporation of more biblical and Protestant motifs relating to spirits and told accordingly.

Many of these could come from print. This Prostitutes Wurzen emphasise gradual change, Prostitutes Wurzen by Prostitutes Wurzen, over a sudden upturning of traditional tales and ghost beliefs. Likewise, one must consider Prostitutes Wurzen tellers, audiences and orality of such tales.

Unlike print stories, the stage and cast for hauntings would most likely be set in the immediate locality of the parish with tales stressing its bounds by defending the Prostitutes Wurzen of its sacred spaces while defining evil places and the memory of such people within it.

Belief and Source Analysis Ghosts can be real. People can be convinced that they have experienced the extraordinary, something they cannot fathom except for recourse to a supernatural Prostitutes Wurzen. Many of our sources claim a direct first-hand encounter with a spirit. A person may have claimed that the event was real and happened to them, but the vast majority of people who interacted with the account at the time, and later, did so in tale form.

It is through stories and parables that people formulate and work out their beliefs rather than just theory. Telling ghost stories or indeed believing in them was not a matter for civil prosecution by the authorities. This contrasts with the court records, depositions and legal mechanisms we find for witchcraft. Whereas witchcraft was a danger whose actors could be identified, tried and punished, ghosts faced less repression as they were not seen as embodying the same danger.

Evidently, it depended on the teller at times. Jesuit priests caught in Protestant lands peddling them would suffer a harsher penalty.

Likewise, if one sought to propitiate or treat with the spirits of the dead, the punishment would potentially be much worse. However, when polemicists and writers criticised ghost belief, they dismissed it as symptomatic of the long-lasting legacy of popery among the ignorant and weak of mind.

They were silly tales for the most Prostitutes Wurzen which confirmed the ignorant in their intellectual and moral squalor and the learned and Godly in their superiority and Election, both mental and spiritual. Houran and R.

They may have enjoyed a more prominent place in English print after the s but this should not detract from their constant presence in the contemporary oral tradition.

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They were popular among both young and old and between the sexes and were not restricted to the poor or ignorant. No subject pleased the minister Randall Hutchins more than spectres and the diarist Samuel Pepys recounted several evenings of such entertainment in the company of his peers.

One should be careful with belief and how we can measure it in the past. Late seventeenth- century scholars described a chain of connection, one that ran the whole way through from ghosts and petty demons to God Himself. It is the remit of theologians to ascribe order to the universe, in the same manner a scientist might, with laws and principles.

Belief, on the other hand, is varied. I translated from a French copy, approved of and subscribed by the Author's own Hand London, Many of Prostitutes Wurzen tales are directly referenced to surviving sixteenth to early eighteenth-century print sources which can then be chased up in the original. I have encountered tales which do Prostitutes Wurzen suggest direct transmission from an earlier period, but in lieu of the expertise to distinguish them, or a direct reference back to an earlier source which I then did exploit, they have been excluded from this study.

The risk that they have been subject to later contamination is too great, as we can only source the stories to the point when they were collected.

We must also be Prostitutes Wurzen that we are largely dealing with literary tales rather than a genuine folklore for the period. This was one criticism levelled at the Prostitutes Wurzen Grimm, whose nineteenth-century collections masqueraded as folklore but were sourced often from literary texts.

Her study into the supernatural beliefs of widows in Gatley, Manchester, in the late twentieth century, revealed that her group of widows often saw, talked to or sensed the presence of their dead partner.

The dead husband was perceived to still Prostitutes Wurzen a guiding influence in their lives which was Prostitutes Wurzen and advisory Prostitutes Wurzen nature.

The first is that ghost stories tied to places were generally legendary. Rather Prostitutes Wurzen reflecting actual experience of perceived encounters with the dead, they were stories about place, embodying fears and anxieties of those locations, upon Prostitutes Wurzen group moralities were projected. These ghosts in these places are Prostitutes Wurzen focus of the first chapter of my work.

My research here will Prostitutes Wurzen concentrate on a legendary landscape and the ghosts that haunted it. I will study the legendary haunted house, but the haunted Prostitutes Wurzen and hearth are places I shall skirt. They deserve their own special attention, one I cannot attempt here. However, in my chapter on war, I will look at accounts of more personal encounters with spirits, occurring at times of extreme stress and crisis.

I hope to discover whether the intensely personal spirits mentioned by Bennett and Devlin and cited as evidence for a more hidden tradition alongside legendary 94 G. The obvious complicating factor is the degree to which such a tradition would be visible in the record, as opposed to having existed purely at an oral level.

This study looks at ghosts of place. We must stress that ghost belief and legends were as much part of a town or cityscape as they were of a rural landscape. The buildings and streets were as every bit haunted to the people who lived and grew up there and knew the local lore as Prostitutes Wurzen countryside was.

Though contemporary invective and polemic often attempted to relocate ghost seeing and belief Prostitutes Wurzen the rural hinterlands and figure it as a rustic vice, one no longer in tune with urban Protestant Enlightened sensibilities, we should be more circumspect in our Prostitutes Wurzen. The cities themselves attracted many rural migrants from the provinces and their economies were interconnected. I acknowledge the potential for ghost stories to reflect anxieties about the Prostitutes Wurzen of modern spaces by aspects of society deemed primitive, regressive and foreign.

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However, we should not allow this to create the false impression that this intruded onto a tabula rasa Prostitutes Wurzen place freed entirely from the memory of haunting. In the English and German record, I found numerous examples of ghostly apparitions and visitations in towns and cities. Graveyards and churches were magnets for ghost legends as we shall see.

They often lay at the centre of a community even though there was a particular effort in Germany Prostitutes Wurzen relocate the former in the Prostitutes Wurzen and seventeenth centuries to the outskirts of settlements. Arguably the most famous German ghost, the White Lady of the House of Hohenzollern, most usually haunted the apartments of the Elector of Brandenburg in the heart of Berlin itself. Sentries and watchmen in the great cities of London, Magdeburg Prostitutes Wurzen Prague Prostitutes Wurzen many other places reported encountering apparitions.

Though the Wild Hunt would rage through the forests at night, phantom monks, ghostly processions and the Devil himself would stalk the urban streets. The city of Dresden was haunted by Prostitutes Wurzen monk who would walk its lanes as well as its castle. There was the account of a Hackney coachman in London picking up a phantom hitch-hiker who transformed into a raging bear with flaming eyes as he set him down at his destination.

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Others were one-off events. However, for these we must remember that a single supernatural incident could then transform that place into a site forever haunted in popular memory. We must be cautious when considering our source Prostitutes Wurzen. There is a big question concerning the extent to which the ghosts within the Prostitutes Wurzen sources correspond to popular belief and tropes. Prostitutes Wurzen Bones are to be seen at the Cheshire-Cheese in Prostitutes Wurzen said place at this very time, for the Satisfaction of those that believes not this Relation London, At the same time, he emphasised the reciprocity of influence between these print depictions and wider public belief which though difficult to prise apart, mutually reinforced each other.

Gillian Prostitutes Wurzen cautioned against accepting their work as genuine records of folkloric beliefs. She compared their aims and methods unfavourably to those a folklorist might have today. Not only could they have presented an inaccurate picture of ghost beliefs for their time of writing, namely the late seventeenth century, but by their incorporation into later eighteenth-century works such as Francis Grose or Henry Bourne, they could skew the entire ghostlore for the pre-industrial era.

In Germany, the stories collected by the minister Prostitutes Wurzen historian of the Erz region Christian Lehmann were also remarkable for their folkloric colour and their synthesis of Catholic and Protestant motifs. We are clearly at a disadvantage attempting to reconstruct the authentic folkloric pattern of tales and beliefs surrounding ghosts for the early modern period.

The Prostitutes Wurzen sources constantly accuse women, children, the old and ignorant for being among those most likely to Prostitutes Wurzen ghosts or tells stories about them yet we have almost no genuine tales or memorates from these groups. We have a few gems from certain contemporary autobiographies. He related how he was often terrified by dreams of supernatural creatures and how, while the rest of his family were working in the fields and he was left alone to guard the house, he preferred to stand outside in the cold as he was too afraid of the bogeymen that might lurk inside.

Bath and J. Lowenthal New York: Shocken Books, Adam Bernds, Evangel. Leipzig, Prostitutes Wurzen, There Prostitutes Wurzen also the matter of discernment of spirits which was at the core of Reformation debates.

Ghosts, spirits, angels, demons, saints and fairies occupied the same contested ground and often appeared or manifested themselves in similar ways. It should be thought of Prostitutes Wurzen more an activity rather than a specific entity.

In Lutheran texts, angels often assumed many of the helpful roles the Catholic saints once performed. Our perception of hauntings could be skewed by newsworthy and noisy spirits with a clear narrative development, in contrast to Prostitutes Wurzen and apparently purposeless ghosts which haunted local settings. Hysteria can also play a role in hauntings dominated by group sightings or poltergeist activity.

Not only might we miss the authentic legendary ghosts of place, but we might also miss the personal ghosts of Prostitutes Wurzen and loss that haunted the early modern psyche. Evidently, these reports described extraordinary events Glanvill, Sadducismus, Goldstein, S. Grider and J. We must be careful of this bias of the spectacular.

We should be aware that theologians had no monopoly on ghosts and that there were other ways of interpreting these spirits. The same caution must be applied with ghosts, especially when the demonic Prostitutes Wurzen is stressed.

We should also remember that people bought, read, told and listened to Prostitutes Wurzen stories not merely to prove theological points or discern the spirit, but for pleasure and a good scare.

Different tropes of ghosts appear in different genres, different spirits in different places. We cannot assume that one trope of ghost fits all and that this spirit was indicative of the age. This thesis will show that the early modern supernatural was much richer and cannot be tied down to one spirit alone.

At the same time, we should look more closely at the details Prostitutes Wurzen the stories found in religious collections. I will contend that by a deeper reading of these stories, we Prostitutes Wurzen see more folkloric elements, notably in those concerning place and war, the focus of this study.

Landscape and place are closely intertwined with ghost belief and legends. Place was not the sole factor in any haunting, but it was certainly one of its most preeminent. As we shall see in this thesis, there were many famous tales of hauntings linked to certain churches, graveyards, bridges, forests, battlefields, inns, country houses and castles. Prostitutes Wurzen has long been recognised as vital in understanding hauntings in other cultures and times and an extensive body of literature, both academic and more popular, reflects this interest.

My own research has been heavily influenced by such studies linking spirits to place and memory. The most well-known and informative in English was that conducted by the folklorist Theo Brown inthough it was one heavily dependent on nineteenth-century folkloric accounts.

Boyd and C. Poo ed. Thomas ed. However, most of his sources derive from the formal literary canon and could be supplemented by a deeper foray into cheap print. They also stress the roots and historic pedigree of tropes, suggestive of a clear descent from earlier, pagan beliefs rather than engage more forcefully with the contemporary relevance of these tales and beliefs in the early modern period itself.

My study will attempt to redress this. Place cannot Prostitutes Wurzen subtracted from the telling of Prostitutes Wurzen story, nor usually the spirit from the site of its haunting. It is the canvas on which our tale is set, the stage on which the drama is played. By examining ghosts in the environment and place their legends are located, it gives us a better understanding of what they were and why they were there, as opposed to how theologians may have narrowly defined and discerned them.

This thesis follows this line of thinking. By looking at Prostitutes Wurzen and understanding how early modern people understood them as liminal nodes between the worlds of men and spirits reflecting group and moral identities, Prostitutes Wurzen will Prostitutes Wurzen much closer to the folkloric understanding of hauntings.

The elites and learned construed ghosts in the written and printed text. I will stress that popular understandings relied much more on an intimate connection Prostitutes Wurzen tale, place and experience.

An idea that runs through this thesis is that the overarching supernatural cosmologies of theologians and demonologists did not necessarily fit the worldview of the people. Likewise, people Prostitutes Wurzen possess contradictory views Prostitutes Wurzen the supernatural. They might dismiss the existence of spirits but, depending on the situation and place, be willing to consider them. The anti-atheist taunt, daring the unbeliever to cross a churchyard at night, is one example of this.

One might not believe in ghosts, but the unease one experiences is a reminder why this place is Prostitutes Wurzen in society, or why this place is dangerous.

The memory of a place was vital for discerning a spirit at the popular level. The encounters Prostitutes Wurzen lonely and ruinous places on the edge of habitation and the dark have been constants in the human condition. Most tales and experiences occurred when the percipient was alone, often in a wild place and in the dark. Humans are animals, albeit with a highly developed social capacity. When they are cut off from other human contact and assistance, in a place where their senses no longer work Prostitutes Wurzen their full capacity, then the primal fears of a social species are at their greatest.

Studying ghosts reminds us of our limits as a species and how Prostitutes Wurzen clad these fears in a human form expressive of Prostitutes Wurzen anxieties confronting us. A strongly functionalist current runs throughout this thesis but it is undeniable that we as animals are constrained Prostitutes Wurzen the sensual limits of our species. As a social Prostitutes Wurzen we construct culture to embody, convey and preserve these ideas which express our ideas of the dark, the borders of our group, malfeasance within our pack and the unknown.

Edited with Introduction and Appendix by J. Dover Wilson and May Yardley. The fear of death itself is the greatest unknown tying all these threads together. Landscape and nature were mediums for revelation.

The early modern mindset has been described as Prostitutes Wurzen binary, as demonstrated by Prostitutes Wurzen of witchcraft.

Through their liminal status, they forcefully emphasised these differences. Ghosts were just one way, albeit an extremely common one, of inscribing morality, memory and meaning onto the landscape. These societies were placed in the landscape. They understood the supernatural and preternatural through reference to the natural world and how the former Prostitutes Wurzen into the latter.

The land was also populated by tales of nature Prostitutes Wurzen, fairies and demons, entities which shared some many common tropes and characteristics with the restless dead. Indeed, with the Reformation one could argue that the landscape was increasingly demonised, the city of God assailed on all sites by the wiles of the Enemy, replicating the anxieties of Protestantisms under siege across both the continent and within the more immediate setting of town versus country, a reforming centre set against a more truculent periphery.

Though popular ghost stories may not necessarily have abided to the strictest theological niceties for Protestants as well as Catholics, the message they preached could be understood as a demotic form of moral history and instruction firmly grounded in Prostitutes Wurzen world around one. Martin Luthers Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 73 vols Weimar: H. It will show how Protestant readings of place compared to Catholic understandings and how older ghostly tropes and stories were reinterpreted and repositioned to reflect both traditional and more current anxieties about generic and specific place and its memories.

It will show that though there was a need to push a Protestant slant on legendary hauntings of place, that this largely Prostitutes Wurzen not differ from traditional perceptions of these fearful places at fearful times and the dreadful spirits that Prostitutes Wurzen them. Both popular and elite understandings were indebted to each other, both feeding off the oral and literate traditions.

Indeed, the success of the Christianisation project of which the Reformation was a part, could be measured to some degree by the extent Prostitutes Wurzen which textual theologies were transposed onto the landscape, and how they became part of the dominating metaphor in Prostitutes Wurzen encounter with the natural world.

If a religion is to be successful, it needs to convey their message within metaphors, concepts and approaches the layman or woman understands, feels familiar with and can easily recycle within their own daily life.

The great mysteries of Christianity and their core teachings needed to be set in a metaphor people could relate to. Fox and D. Woolf eds. It was one mirroring the path of the believer in life. Place was a constant in understanding and interpreting salvation. Why War? War Prostitutes Wurzen an area of early modern ghost studies which demands greater research, one this thesis aims to address.

Wondering where the lost wealth of these wartime generations went, Prostitutes Wurzen how it might be recovered, were further stimuli to legends of ghosts Prostitutes Wurzen hidden treasure.

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War itself was Prostitutes Wurzen punishment for sin in Lutheran orthodoxy. So too were ghosts, which were just another example of a spectacular punishment meted out on an individual or community for Prostitutes Wurzen, secret or otherwise.

Other wondrous apparitions conveyed warnings or helped those in dire need. Ghosts, angels and Catholic saints often occupied the same territory by performing the same roles and even appearing in the same guise. War shows a much more varied, colourful and Prostitutes Wurzen spirit world beyond the tired old Purgatorial tropes that dog much of Reformation polemic on the subject.

Edwards ed. War and revolution have usually been close bedfellows. Despite the revolutionary rejection of ghosts and spirits in all these societies, belief in ghosts was rehabilitated once either the revolution was tamed or reversed. One must wonder if making peace with the spirit world and ancestors was one way of drawing a line and making peace with the past. One must also ask, as in Reformation Europe, whether once beyond the swivel-eyed zealots of the new order, belief in ghosts had ever gone away in the first place.

We should acknowledge the power of war to act as a force for disenchantment in the world. This is manifested Prostitutes Wurzen powerfully in the theodical Prostitutes Wurzen how a caring God ever let war happen. As we know, atheism, or what was perceived as such, became a major source of concern for divines in the decades following these wars. However, what will Prostitutes Wurzen clear from this thesis is that ghosts and Prostitutes Wurzen supernatural were closely intertwined within narratives of war, at the personal and societal level and as a means of negotiating the past, present and future.

In an already enchanted world, the stresses and memory of Prostitutes Wurzen and bloodshed heightened the relevance of spirit narratives as well as demanding an explanation for what these strange and often inexplicable experiences and situations actually were. Furthermore, in the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century, war was constantly present either as a looming threat or as a reality in both England and Germany.

The period was marked by two great conflicts. It was in this context that so many of Prostitutes Wurzen tales present in this thesis were collected, printed and told and thus inevitable that so many would deal with ghosts in this setting. This thesis aims to address the gap in the Prostitutes Wurzen involving ghosts and war in the early modern period in the German and Prostitutes Wurzen record.

There are no specific studies focused on this exact topic. Several deal with supernatural tropes involving spirit armies and ghosts seen in war contexts but none have attempted a wider overview which embraces the diversity of haunting in the period.

Terms for Ghosts When we look for ghosts in the early modern English record, certain terms stand out. It usually Prostitutes Wurzen on the point of view of the author and the activities of the entity itself. Tierney, 'Return of the Prostitutes Wurzen Knopf, ; D. Writers such as Ludwig Lavater often included long taxonomies of classical spirits, near the start of their works, some of which could be associated with spirits of the dead. This may be the actual spirit of the deceased or it may not be.

I will not restrict myself to what Protestant polemic mocked as the spirit of the dead par excellence, the supplicatory Purgatorial ghost. Prostitutes Wurzen, by looking at a wide range of tropes, in different places and in different situations notably warI hope to present a much more realistic and comprehensive portrait of the ghost, more in tune with popular belief.

Outline of Study This thesis is divided into two chapters which are then subdivided into themed sections. The first chapter looks at ghosts and stories linked to certain places. We start by examining how people Prostitutes Wurzen hauntedness within their own local communities, and how this Lecouteux, Return, ; Lecouteux, Secret History, Hoffmann-Krayer and G. We will look at how sin was remembered in the landscape through hauntings by Prostitutes Wurzen and Protestants, and how Prostitutes Wurzen walkings of spirits Prostitutes Wurzen place reflected confessional differences.

From there, we will look at how the Devil haunted the wilds and coursed the woods. We will note the difficulties encountered in discerning the human dead amongst the spirits of the wild. We will examine spirit lights in the countryside at night and how they were interpreted.

We will Prostitutes Wurzen at why ruins were infested with spirits Prostitutes Wurzen how decay was both cause and consequence of hauntings. The Prostitutes Wurzen monastery was one such place which reflected the deeper confessional rivalries, and ambivalences Prostitutes Wurzen the Reformation.

From there, we will examine why the graveyard remained a place Prostitutes Wurzen fear and power, and how themes of purity and pollution were negotiated by apparitions and how this current of belief ran uninterrupted from Prostitutes Wurzen medieval into the early modern period. Revenants, or the dangerous dead who lurked in their graves or rose from them to wreak havoc amongst the living, deserve their own special mention here, as well as the graveyard being a site for ghostly portents and destination Prostitutes Wurzen funeral processions of spirits.

We will look at the haunted house from the outside and see Prostitutes Wurzen people discerned ghosts in ways different from the theologians. We will see how treasure was Prostitutes Wurzen to many hauntings. The haunted castle was another site where Prostitutes Wurzen were seen, tied to dark memories of the past and warning of the imminent death of their occupants. The final site we consider Prostitutes Wurzen the haunted inn, a place evocative of murderous innkeepers and violated hospitalities, obscured identities and of death far from home.

The second chapter Prostitutes Wurzen with ghosts linked to war, seen prior to, during and after a conflict. It starts with ghostly armies of spirits seen on land and in the skies and their multiple meanings. It then examines the haunted battlefield and how themes of slaughter, pollution and bad death were interpreted through Protestant and Catholic spirit tropes.

We Prostitutes Wurzen look at the role atrocity Prostitutes Wurzen in making ghosts and how they were both creatures of individual conscience and wider national and confessional memory. We then consider apparitions associated with the wicked lifestyle of the soldier and how these acted as supernatural figures of discipline and punishment.

We will examine how apparitions negotiated anxieties involving loss, how they warned of death and, as wraiths, conveyed news from the fallen to loved ones far away. I hope to show how people who thought of themselves as Protestants or were identified by others as such, understood apparitions and supernatural tropes and activity that could be linked to the realm of the dead.

This, Prostitutes Wurzen turn, will show continuities across time Prostitutes Wurzen region of a supernatural that adapted to serve the needs of society and the individual. Place and Haunting If a drunken farmer, returning from market, fell from Old Dobbin and broke his neck-or a carter, under the same predicament, tumbled from his cart or waggon, and was killed by it-that spot was ever after haunted and impassable: In short, there was Prostitutes Wurzen a bye-lane or cross-way but had its ghost.

Problems concerning the reconstruction of mentalities from texts have already been discussed in the introduction though of course in this instance, Prostitutes Wurzen place is so much linked to oralities, we are at a disadvantage.

I will argue that by looking at the texts as well as anthropological models on how place interacts with memories, and how pollution and liminality are linked to location, that this difficulty can be surmounted to a degree. Furthermore, by considering how aspects of hauntedness of place were understood within Christian traditions, and how Prostitutes Wurzen landscapes played host to both the dead and non-human spirits and places, we can approach Prostitutes Wurzen clearly the question of discernment which lay at the core of Reformation debates regarding the identity of the ghost.

Much of the recent research into the ghosts of early modern England and Germany has focused on a spectre haunting the person for a specific Prostitutes Wurzen, where the setting in which the story occurs is incidental to the grander moral and metaphysical message imparted by the encounter with the spirit itself. The purposeful and interventionist nature of early modern haunting has been noted by several historians.

Other spirits demand justice, either Prostitutes Wurzen their heirs or their murderers and portents point out the workings of Providence. It is the nature and action of the spirit and the response of the witnesses which are important. London,3. Place becomes a mere incidental backdrop for this encounter.

The haunted house, castle or cemetery were not so much creations of the gothic but a repackaging of much older tropes. The haunted house has been an enduring trope in the western literary tradition from the time of Plautus and Pliny and likewise, when we look closely, we find many stigmatised properties in early modern English and German texts.

Ruined buildings, whether secular or religious, litter the sixteenth and seventeenth-century records with Prostitutes Wurzen fear they evoked. Haunted castles are prominent throughout the Prostitutes Wurzen texts and inns too had an evil reputation, tainted with supernatural skulduggery.

Graveyards were perceived as places of dread and pollution and best avoided at night. A whole landscape of fear unfolds before the reader with some spirits bound to places while others roamed the countryside and forests. Even portents, seen often as workings of divine Providence, were often tied to Prostitutes Wurzen family home or seat or place where power was exercised. This chapter will examine these issues.

It will set out the case that place was vital to an understanding of what ghosts and spirits were, and what their functions were in the early modern English and German landscapes. They also remained similar throughout the period. Despite this, Lavater, Of Ghostes, What is of most interest is Prostitutes Wurzen Erasmus, a scholar so much Prostitutes Wurzen the cusp of the middle ages and early modern period, established the physical setting for the tale in a dialogue between a Thomas and Prostitutes Wurzen.

It is in a format familiar to anyone today who appreciates a traditional ghost story. Th: Perfectly well. Th: I am apt enough to believe that; for he's a Man to do any Part to the Life.

Th: Prostitutes Wurzen Very well. He and I have crackt many a Bottle together there.

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Ans: There's a way, you know, betwixt two streight Rows of Trees. Ans: That's it. One side of the way has a dry Ditch, that's over-grown with Brambles; and then there's Prostitutes Wurzen little Bridge, that leads into an open Field.

Th: I remember it. It is a vital issue when reconstructing ghosts in popular belief. The local ghost is a ghost based on Prostitutes Wurzen. It is the ghost taught by the women and old. It is the spirit that one was taught to fear as a child alongside the dark and wild places, the dread of which persists long after childhood is over.

It is the one actually encountered, in place. It is more powerful than the one of the polemical text, penned by clergymen or intellectuals. Of course, aspects of the wider mentality of the time filter down into local interpretations and tropes of the supernatural but that supernatural still most often occurs in a Prostitutes Wurzen known to that community.

Whereas the polemical ghost encountered in the print texts is one defining confessional boundaries, the local ghost acts to define community identity in which the tale is set.

Country people were famed for Prostitutes Wurzen storytelling skills encompassing a bestiary of mythical beings and creatures such as giants, devils, fairies and goblins alongside their own tales of Caesar and King Arthur in England. Ghosts played a major part in these tales and legends. This Prostitutes Wurzen apparent from the English record. A Comedy. The parish church with the graves of their forebears lay at its centre, a constant reminder of Prostitutes Wurzen legitimacy of their descendants to the rights and duties that went with membership of the community.

The Prostitutes Wurzen act of telling expressed that one was part of this community, that one knew details of landscapes and people, collective memories that would be foreign to a stranger. Prostitutes Wurzen just as one was defined by who Prostitutes Wurzen was, a person was also defined by whom one was not.

Bounds were laid down on what was socially acceptable and socially unacceptable in a Prostitutes Wurzen. Bounds were also laid down in the clear definition of the physical borders of the parish. And also two Sermons London, Just as we physically occupy and pass through space in the environment around us, we also engage with it cognitively and understand it, not merely Prostitutes Wurzen our own experiences but also through the memories and experiences of those who have interacted with this landscape before us.

As we plot these memories in the landscape, spatially and temporally, we create in effect a haunted landscape linking Prostitutes Wurzen to people and events which not merely define that place but also the underlying social, economic and moral forces that permeate our own societies.

They are places where either something has happened, or something deserves to have happened. By being dangerous, they imply that Prostitutes Wurzen places are safe.

By being loci of potential Prostitutes Wurzen, they suggest that other locations are more moral. Interaction there can become performative as in the case of sites associated with legend tripping. Liminal and boundary areas attract legends and ghost stories. Humanity as a species is both enabled and restricted by its own physiological and perceptive capacities, and, as an Prostitutes Wurzen with language and a highly developed social capability, by its tendency to operate within C.

Liminal Prostitutes Wurzen are places where the human interacts with other Prostitutes Wurzen groups and also where it shares space with the spirit world.

Certain places, types of landscape and the hours of darkness all place limits on the ability of humanity to function within these environments. Such places also have the tendency to physically separate communities from each other thus play their part in the designation Prostitutes Wurzen borders between rival groups. Lying outside the direct control of the authorities, they are also places that attract those who refuse to conform to the morality and laws of society or those considered impure such as lepers.

They were dangerous places which demanded greater vigilance when visited. Supernatural legends and the fear these sites caused Prostitutes Wurzen heightened sensual alertness and functioned as a more efficient means of keeping watch on the boundary. Personal experiences would then enter the cycle of memorate Prostitutes Wurzen legend as they were told and retold over time and to different audiences.

Christian Jr. It has been noted that Prostitutes Wurzen legends have functioned as means of controlling movement at night, particularly Prostitutes Wurzen of children.

However, dressing up as a spirit was perceived as a Prostitutes Wurzen used cover by those intent on breaking the rules. This included criminals such as burglars. And for that cause, such fooles do never cease haunting those places, of purpose to feare and Prostitutes Wurzen such as passe neere unto the same. Newly done out of French into English London, Indeed, their Prostitutes Wurzen were also often committed in the same zone. Gallows, wheels and gibbets were usually set on parish or administrative boundaries and were recognised as landmarks denoting these bounds.

In England, their corpses would be staked. This may have had two further functions beyond a typical rite of humiliation. The second, and more likely the Prostitutes Wurzen in England according to Owen Davies, was to pin the spirit to that specific location and prevent it from wandering. Such spectacles served as a powerful warning to insiders of the morality and standards expected of its members, and the terrible fate of exclusion that awaited transgressors.

They also defined boundaries of power between communities by the public exhibition of body parts. The spiritual fate of these deviants was as dreadful as the indignities heaped upon their mortal remains. Hohenloh-Langenburgischen Raht Nuremberg, MacDonald and T.

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Th: Oh! Travellers and those journeying by night in an unfamiliar countryside seem to have been most at risk of being waylaid or tricked by these lights.